The Burial Cairns and the Landscape in the Archipelago of Åboland, SW Finland, in the Bronze Age and the Iron Age

Tapani Tuovinen

Department of Art Studies and Cultural Anthropology, University of Oulu, P.O.Box 1000, FIN-90014 University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland

Abstract

Mortuary rituals express and cope with disorder brought about by a member’s death in the community. The autonomous connection of the deceased with the community is disrupted through mortuary rituals. In many cultures the subsequent contacts with the realm of the dead are maintained in formalized practices, sometimes including or referring to objects or patterns that can be traced in the archaeological record. In this study it is asked, if the Bronze Age and Iron Age burial cairns (1200 BC – AD 1000) in the SW archipelago of Finland might be interpreted as monuments establishing a link between the landscape and the religious context of symbolic meanings, thus making it meaningful to examine the spatial references of grave sites.

The field studies include excavations, surveys, boulder analyses, and weathering studies. The number of cairns in the area is 444. Examination of samples of boulders suggested that the stones were usually collected from the adjacent terrain. The Schmidt hammer technique was applied to measure the weathering differences between basal and lateral surfaces, and possible secondary interference.

The chronology of the archipelago cairns is based on previous studies related to general chronological characteristics and datings of archipelago graves. Using discriminant analysis, the size of the cairn, the convexity of the surface at the grave site, and the topography of the terrain were identified as the variables most related to the differences between Group P, having a Bronze Age character (147 cairns), from Group R of Iron Age character (218 cairns).

Two models representing the shorelines of 500 BC and AD 1000 were reconstructed using a digital elevation model (DEM). Monte Carlo-testing was applied when the visible areas around grave sites were compared to reference sets in four subareas. The grave sites in Group P were often directed towards the land, whereas the grave sites in Group R were typically directed towards the sea. The difference might be related to differences in subsistence strategies. The cairns represented a conservative burial custom that belonged to local communities in maritime and northern areas, as opposed to the southern agricultural environments.

Tiivistelmä

Vainajan omaehtoinen yhteys elävien yhteisöön katkeaa vasta yhteisöllisen kuolemanrituaalin lopullisesti päätyttyä. Monissa kulttuureissa kuolemanrituaalin jälkeiset yhteydet vainajaan kiteytyvät muodollisiksi käytännöiksi, jotka voivat tulla arkeologisesti näkyviin aineellisissa jäännöksissä tai luonnonmaiseman paikkojen, tilojen ja elementtien suhteissa. Työssä tarkastellaan, ovatko Turunmaan saariston pronssikauden ja rautakauden hautarauniot (1200 e.Kr. – 1000 j.Kr.) tulkittavissa monumenteiksi, jotka yhdistivät maiseman symbolisten merkitysten uskomukselliseen kontekstiin.

Kenttätutkimuksiin kuuluu kaivauksia, inventointi, lohkaretutkimuksia ja rapautumismittauksia. Hautoja on 444. Lohkaretutkimukset osoittivat kivien tulleen kerätyiksi hautapaikkojen läheisyydestä. Tapaustutkielmissa kiveyksen basaali- ja lateraalipintojen välistä rapautumiseroa ja sekundaarisia vaurioita tutkittiin kimmovasaramittauksin.

Hautaraunioiden kronologia perustuu aikaisempiin tutkimuksiin kronologisista tunnusmerkeistä sekä saariston ajoitettuihin hautoihin. Erotteluanalyysissa kiveyksen laajuus, hautapaikan maanpinnan kuperuus ja hautapaikan suhde ympäröiviin huippuihin osoittautuivat muuttujiksi, jotka selvimmin jakavat aineiston pronssikauden tyypin P-ryhmään (147 hautaa) ja rautakauden tyypin R-ryhmään (218 hautaa).

Numeerisesta korkeusmallista laskettiin kaksi maastomallia, jotka vastaavat rannansiirtymisen kehitysvaihetta 500 e.Kr. (P-ryhmä) ja 1000 j.Kr. (R-ryhmä). Hautapaikoilta näkyvissä olleita alueita verrattiin satunnaisesti valittuihin verrokkipaikkoihin Monte Carlo -testauksen avulla. Merkittävin ero oli, että P-ryhmän hautapaikat olivat tyypillisesti suuntautuneet merta ja R-ryhmän hautapaikat maata kohti. Ero liittynee toimeentuloon latautuneisiin odotuksiin ja epävarmuuksiin. Hautarauniot merkitsevät konservatiivista hautaustapaa, joka kuului enemmän mereisten ja pohjoisten paikallisyhteisöjen kuin agraarisen ja eteläisen asutuksen piiriin.

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
Preface
1. Introduction
2. Earlier Field Archaeology in the Archipelago of Åboland
2.1. A Mosaic of Small Islands And Brackish Water
2.1.1. The Archipelago Zones
2.1.2. Shore Displacement
2.1.3. Climatology
2.2. Field Archaeological Research into Burial Cairns since the 1880s
2.2.1. Early Field Investigations in Åboland
2.2.2. The Augmentation of the Museum Collections
2.2.3. The origin of the hypothesis concerning the peripheral nature of the archipelago
2.3. Field work projects 1943–1973
2.3.1. The Investigations of the National Board of Antiquities in Houtskär 1978–1986
2.3.2. New finds
2.4. Interpretations of Coastal Cairns
2.4.1. Immigration or Cultural Contacts
2.4.2. Adopting a Landscape Approach
2.4.3. Coastal Cairns in Sweden
3. Land, Sea, and Burial Sites
3.1. Death: a Crisis within the Community
3.2. Graves as Markers of What Is Beyond
3.2.1. Stone
3.2.2. Monumentality
3.2.3. Morphological Variation
3.3. The Landscape As a Cultural Construction
3.3.1. Dimensions of the Human Body And the Human Landscape
3.3.2. Approaches to Meanings Embedded in the Landscape
3.3.3. The Landscape of the Prehistoric Archipelago
4. The Field Studies
4.1. What is a burial cairn?
4.1.1. The grave as an empirical category
4.1.2. The field archaeological criteria
4.2. Levellings and the shore displacement of the Baltic Sea
4.2.1. Measuring methods
4.2.2. Dating shore level zones of the Litorina Sea
4.3. The excavations
4.3.1. Sundbergen, Nagu
4.3.2. Lilla Kuusis, Nagu
4.3.3. Östergård 2, Dragsfjärd
4.3.4. Ängesnäs bergen, Nagu
4.4. The surveys
4.4.1. Fieldwork 1983–1998
4.4.2. Research scheme
4.4.3. The survey of the area of combined activities of the Southwestern Archipelago National Park
4.4.4. The practical routine: finding cairns and making field notes
4.5. The topography of burial cairns in Houtskär, Korpo and Nagu
4.5.1. Introduction
4.5.2. The digital elevation model
4.5.3. The distributions of the terrain variables
4.6. The boulder studies
4.6.1. The mass of stones and boulders
4.6.2. The rocks
4.6.3. The roundness of the stones and boulders
4.7. Weathering studies
4.7.1. The principles
4.7.2. The weathering of the shore rock and the shore displacement
4.7.3. The rocks
4.7.4. The Schmidt hammer measurements
4.7.5. The estimation of weathering curves
4.7.6. The weathering of the basal surfaces of burial cairns
4.7.7. The weathering of boulders
4.7.8. Are the craters secondary?
4.7.9. Discussion
5. The Morphology of the Burial Cairns
5.1. The Outlines and Surface Topographies
5.2. The Dimensions and Relative Lengths
5.3. The Direction of the Longitudinal Axis
5.4. The Architectural Constructions
5.4.1. The chains
5.4.2. The stone cists
5.4.3. Other constructions
5.4.4. Burial cairns with and without architectural constructions
5.5. The constructing material
5.6. The interments
6. The Cemeteries and the Single Graves
7. The Bronze Age – the Iron Age
7.1. Earlier studies on the chronology of cairns in SW Finland
7.2. The dated cairns in Åboland
7.2.1. The dating criteria
7.2.2. The stratigraphical and the cemetery chorological datings
7.2.3. The group analogical datings
7.3. The empirical determination of chronological characteristics
7.3.1. The stone cover of the burial cairn
7.3.2. The relative location of the burial cairns
7.3.3. The topography of the burial place
7.4. Discriminant analysis
7.4.1. The groups P and R
7.4.2. The potential variables
7.4.3. The estimation
7.4.4. The shore zone datings
7.4.5. The classification functions
7.4.6. Discussion
8. Visual Dimensions of the Burial Sites
8.1. To See And To Be Seen
8.2. The Development of the Landscape in the Archipelago of Åboland
8.2.1. Shore displacement
8.2.2. Forests and pastures
8.3. Views from the Grave Sites
8.3.1. Altitudes of the Grave Sites
8.3.2. Terrain Observations And Digital Elevation Model
8.3.3. Map Scale
8.3.4. The Statistical Significance of the Differences in the Distribution of the Fields of Vision
8.3.5. The Ranges of Vision towards the Sea and the Land in Four Different Regions
8.3.6. Grave Sites And the Symbolic Implications of the Landscape
8.3.7. Discussion
9. On Continuity, Settlement, and Subsistence
9.1. A Summary of Empirical Results
9.2. The Iron-Age Settlement of Åboland Reconsidered
9.2.1. Graves As Indicators of Settlement
9.2.2. Images of Wilderness And Isolation in the Construction of National Prehistory
9.2.3. Critical Comments on the Periphery Hypothesis
9.2.4. Archaeological Evidence of Iron-Age Settlement
9.2.5. Pollen Analyses
9.2.6. Onomastic studies
9.2.7. Summary
9.3. Cairns: a Coastal Archaeology View
9.4. Cairns in Historical Sources?
9.4.1. Långholm
9.4.2. Långfuruholm
Bibliography
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
List of Tables
1. The shore displacement of the Baltic Sea in Hitis (the SE part of the archipelago of Åboland), in Lohm, Korpo (the central part of the archipelago), and in Iniö (the NW part of the archipelago). The Litorina shore level zones are given in conventional radiocarbon years according to Glückert (1976, Appendix I) and the estimated mean sea levels with the standard errors in AD 800 and AD 1400 according to Ekman (1993) and Kakkuri (1997).
2. Sundbergen 1, Nagu. An osteological analysis of the bone samples from the cairn.
3. Sundbergen 2, Nagu. An osteological analysis of the bone samples from the cairn.
4. A soil analysis of the cairns at Sundbergen, Nagu.
5. Ängesnäs bergen, Nagu. Rounded mineral particles in water sieved sample, particle size 1–2 mm.
6. The archaeological remains in the survey of the area of combined activities of the Southwestern Archipelago National Park in 1994–1997.
7. Sampling area of Houtskär, Korpo and Nagu. Differences between on-site measurements of altitudes of burial sites and altitudes derived from corresponding cells in the DEM.
8. Comparison of the burial sites and the reference set (the means, the standard deviations, the greatest values, and the smallest value for all variables).
9. The significance levels α of the differences between the terrain variables of the burial cairns and the reference set. The two-tailed Mann-Whitney’s U statistic and the two-tailed Kolmogorov-Smirnov’s D statistic.
10. The masses of stones and boulders of five burial cairns.
11. The frequencies of the roundness scores 1...5 of stones and boulders weighing at least 0.5 kg in the excavated burial cairns.
12. Observations on the soil under the burial cairn and its vicinity.
13. The distribution of the roundness proportion of boulders in cairns built on a rock and on soil.
14. The volume of the burial cairns in cubic meters, and the roundness proportion of the boulders.
15. The altitudes and numbers of the measuring points, the numbers of rebound values n, the means and the standard deviations of rebound values, the lowest and highest rebound values and the standard errors of the mean values (SEM) in the measuring point on an average.
16. Schmidt-hammer measurements of rock surfaces (sites, types of rock, altitudes h, numbers of measuring points, numbers of rebound values, means, standard deviations Sd, and means of standard errors of mean).
17. Comparison of the mean rebound values of the basal and the lateral surfaces (t-testing).
18. The comparison between the frequencies of stone settings with indeterminable outline, and those with a regular shape, on rocks and mineral grounds (c = 0.306, df = 1, a = 0.580).
19. The shape (the columns) and the profile (the rows) of the burial cairns. Some categories were combined to avoid low frequencies so that cairns of rectangular and polygonal or triangular forms were amalgamated into one class of angular cairns. The rarest profile classes were omitted.
20. The shape (the columns) and the profile (the rows). The standardized deviates between observed and expected frequencies for each cell.
21. The length, width, height, area (product of length and width) and volume (product of length, breadth and height) of the stone settings of the burial cairns.
22. The directions of the longitudinal axes of the cairns.
23. Comparison between burial cairns with and without architectural constructions: the ln-volume, roundness proportion, altitude and ln-sum of distances to nearest neighbours. The degrees of freedom for the altitude were determined using the Welch method (Widjeskog 1987).
24. The osteological finds of the burial cairns in Åboland: the sample size (g), the part defined as human bone (g), the calvarium parts (g), the estimated age, the number of individuals MNI, animal bones and the occurrence of burnt/unburnt bones. The samples were analysed by Tarja Formisto in 1987 and 1998[1].
25. The frequencies of the local densities within the radii of 60 and 200 meters.
26. The dated burial cairns in Åboland. n = 31.
27. The distances to the five nearest neighbours (m) and the sum of distances to the nearest neighbours.
28. Potential variables measuring the location of the burial place in relation to neighbouring burial places and the topography.
29. Comparison of differences between the groups P and R. To achieve an approximate normal distribution, natural logarithms were computed of the area of the stone cover, the sum of distances, the altitude relative to the mean, and the square root of the relative proportion of sea.
30. Classification matrix of the discriminant analysis of the area of the cairn, the convexity of the burial place and the height difference to the highest top.
31. Region 1, Björkö – Kittuis – Hyppeis. Comparison of the visible areas. Group P, n = 3, m = 19.
32. Region 1. Comparison of viewing angles and distances. Group P, n = 3, m = 19.
33. Region 1, Björkö – Kittuis – Hyppeis. Comparisons of the areas visible from burial sites and random sites. Group R, n = 21, m = 19.
34. Region 1, Björkö – Kittuis – Hyppeis. Comparisons of viewing angles and distances from burial sites and random sites. Group R, n = 21, m = 19.
35. Region 2, Brunskär – Nötö – Lökholm. Comparisons of visible areas. Group R, n = 16, m = 24.
36. Region 2. Comparisons of viewing angles and distancess. Group R, n = 16, m = 24.
37. Region 3. Comparisons of the visible areas. Group P, n = 24, m = 19. Owing to ties, no reliable values were obtained for some minima (marked with dots)
38. Region 3. Comparisons of the angles and distances. Group P, n = 24, m = 19.
39. Region 3. Comparisons of the visible areas. Group R, n = 23, m = 19.
40. Region 3. Comparisons of the viewing angles and the distances. Group R, n = 23, m = 19.
41. Region 4, Lillandet. Comparisons of visible areas. Group P, n = 17, m = 19.
42. Region 4, Lillandet. Comparisons of viewing angles and distances. Group P, n = 17, m = 19.
43. Region 4, Lillandet. Comparisons of visible areas. Group R, n = 15, m = 19.
44. Region 4, Lillandet. Comparisons of viewing angles and distances. Group R, n = 15, m = 19.
List of Figures
1. The research area: the parishes Iniö, Velkua, Rymättylä (Sw. Rimito), Houtskär (Fi. Houtskari), Korpo (Fi. Korppoo), Nagu (Fi. Nauvo), Dragsfjärd, Västanfjärd and Kimito (Fi. Kemiö) and the town of Pargas (Fi. Parainen), and the islands belonging to the town of Turku (Sw. Åbo). The total area is 6384 km including the sea areas.
2. The hypsographic curve of the archipelago of Åboland.
3. Trollberg, Houtskär. The NW part of the cairn has been removed to reveal the inner circle. A combination level plan of the excavation in the year1979, drawn by Aarni Erä-Esko. The National Board of Antiquities.
4. The Trollberg cairn can be distinguished in the distance when climbing up the SE slope to the top of the rock outcrop. Photograph by the author.
5. The cairn of Trollberg is well known. In Houtskär it has been endowed a great significance since it is said to symbolize the whole prehistory of the locality. The guide board on the parking place of a boat restaurant tells the visitors the way up to the cairn which is on one of the highest rocks in the region. Photograph by the author.
6. Furunabb, Houtskär. To the right the cairn 088. Photograph by the author.
7. The excavated burial cairns in the archipelago of Åboland. 1. Labbnäsåsen, Dragsfjärd. 2. Jordbro, Dragsfjärd. 3. Långnäsudden, Dragsfjärd. 4. Rövik, Dragsfjärd. 5. Hammarsboda 108, Dragsfjärd. 6. Nämanön, Dragsfjärd. 7, 8. Tjuda, Kimito. 9. Jättekastberget, Kimito. 10. Söderviken, Västanfjärd. 11, 12. Lillskogen, Västanfjärd. 13. Söderby, Dragsfjärd. 14. Trollberg, Houtskär. 15–22. Furunabb, Houtskär. 23, 24. Sundbergen, Nagu. 25. Lilla Kuusis, Nagu. 26. Östergård 2, Dragsfjärd. 27. Ängesnäs bergen, Nagu.
8. The dwellings from the Bronze Age and the pre-Roman period (encircled), and the cairns of the Bronze-Age type (Group P, see chapter 7) on the island of Kimito. The shoreline corresponds to the height of -17.5 m, i.e. approximately 1200 BC. Several long straits divided the island of Kimito into parts, and the firth-like inlets added to the diversity of the topography. As early as 1948 Nils Cleve observed that a considerable part of the graves follows an ancient firth through the island of Kimito (Cleve 1948: 492–493). © The National Board of Surveying, License n:o MAR/103/98.
9. The known burial cairns in the southern archipelago of Nagu, in the area of Nötö, Boskär, Ådön, Sandholm, Trunsö, and Lökholm. © The National Board of Survey (MAR/103/98).
10. The cairns in Sundbergen, Nagu. Surveyed by the author (TYA)[2].
11. Sundbergen, Nagu, cairn 1, profile W–E. Measured and drawn by Timo Kuokkanen (TYA).
12. Part of a peg plate of an antler comb (TYA 486: 23). Sundbergen, Nagu, cairn 1. Size ca 8:1. Photographed by the author.
13. The burial cairn Sundbergen 2, Nagu, seen from the west. Photographed by the author.
14. Sundbergen, Nagu. Particle size curves of soil samples.
15. The cairn on Lilla Kuusis, Nagu. Measured and drawn by the author (TYA).
16. Plan of the cairn Lilla Kuusis, Nagu. Contours at 5 cm intervals. Measured pantographically by the author, Tommi Vuorinen and Timo Vuorisalo (TYA).
17. The cemetery of Östergård 2, Dragsfjärd. Surveyed and drawn by the author (TYA).
18. The topography of the top of Ängesnäs bergen, Nagu. Surveyed and drawn by the excavation team and the author (TYA).
19. The cairn on Ängesnäs bergen, Nagu. Photograph by the author.
20. Ängesnäs bergen, Nagu. Plan of burial cairn, measured and drawn by the excavation team and the author (TYA).
21. Areas investigated by August 1999.
22. Known burial cairns in the area investigated by December 1998.
23. Cairn on Kalholm, Holma, former parish of Hitis (present Dragsfjärd). From the burial place there is an open view to Lammörs fjärden, although the altitude of the site is only 17 meters. Photographed by the author 1997.
24. The target area, the known burial cairns (filled dots) and the reference set (cross-hatched dots). © The National Board of Survey (MAR/103/98).
25. The relative proportion (%) of the sea area of the window for the burial sites (upper) and the reference set (lower).
26. The tape measures and the total mass of the cairn for stones and boulders weighing at least 0.5 kg. The regression line m = 331.7 + 410.1v, in which m is the mass (kg) and v (volume) is the product of the length, breadth and height (m3).
27. Boxplot of the masses of stones and boulders of five burial cairns. (1. Sundbergen 1, 2. Sundbergen 2, 3. Lilla Kuusis, 4. Östergård 2, 5. Ängesnäs bergen).
28. The rocks of the Sundbergen 1 and 2 burial cairns and the sample from a boulder field.
29. The relative cumulative frequencies of the roundness scores in the excavated burial cairns.
30. The sites for the determination of weathering curves. 1. Sundbergen, Nagu. 2. Hagaudd, Korpo. 3. Säbbholmen, Dragsfjärd. 4. Ramsö, Houtskär. 5. Kyrkudden, Nagu. 6. Immaskär, Houtskär.
31. Weathering curves (previous page): the mean values of the rebound values (vertical axis) and the altitudes of the measuring spots (horizontal axis). The error bars are the standard errors of the mean value. The estimated changeover point L has been marked for the curve for Sundbergen, Nagu.
32. Summary of the weathering curves.
33. Ängesnäs bergen, Nagu. Contour plot of the rebound values of the basal and the lateral surface and the approximate outer edge of the stone setting (thick screened border, cf. fig. 20).
34. Sundbergen 1, Nagu. The plan of the cairn. The differences of the mean values of the upper and lower surface rebound values dR (cf. Appendix 1). Drawn by Timo Kuokkanen and the author, 1988 (TYA).
35. The distribution of the area of the stone settings of the burial cairns. n = 358.
36. The length-width-height-hexahedron of the burial cairns. n = 338.
37. The 38 largest burial cairns in Åboland (length more than 15 meters or area larger than 175 m). The size of the symbol on the map is directly proportional to the relative length of the stone setting.
38. Burial cairns with a relative length of at least 2 (n = 49). The direction of the map symbol indicates the direction of the longitudinal axis of the stone setting.
39. A large cairn at Norrskogsbergen, Nagu (240). Photographed by Timo Kuokkanen (TYA).
40. A small cairn on the island of Mjoö, Nagu (254). Photographed by the author.
41. A burial cairn at Storhomman, Kimito (125). Photographed by the author.
42. A detail of the chain of the SW periphery of the cairn at Storhomman: stones wedging the boulders in a horizontal position have been pushed between the flatwise laid rounded boulders of the dry-stone. Photographed by the author.
43. A burial cairn with an upright dry-stone wall at Genböle, Dragsfjärd (001). The boulders have been apparently collected in the adjacent terrain, in which schistose gneiss is cracking up into edged pieces. Photographed by the author.
44. A burial cairn on the island of Långfuruholm, Dragsfjärd (060). Photographed by Timo Kuokkanen (TYA).
45. A burial cairn at Furunabb, Houtskär (088). Photographed by Timo Kuokkanen (TYA).
46. A cairn at Trotby, Kimito. Photographed by the author.
47. A stone road on the esker between two burial cairns in Koupo, Pargas. Drawing by Ragnar Nyberg (Nyberg 1985: 35).
48. The distribution of the roundness proportion of the boulders (n = 345). Codes: 1 – edged; 2 - almost exclusively edged; 3 - mostly edged; 4 - edged and rounded; 5 - mostly rounded; 6 - almost exclusively rounded; 7 – rounded.
49. The local density coefficient Cii(r) as a function of the radius r (m). The values of the coefficients were computed using the LDEN module (Kintigh 1987; Kintigh 1992).
50. The dagger from Långnäsudden, Dragsfjärd, according to Alfred Hackman (1897).
51. The grind stone from Stora Ängeskär, Dragsfjärd. Photographed by the author.
52. Boxplot of the distances (m) to the five nearest neighbours. The scale is logarithmic.
53. The distribution of the sum of distances to nearest neighbours (n = 380) (logarithmic scale).
54. The greatest difference of altitudes inside the window as a function of the radius of the window (r = 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2000 and 5000 meters). Center points in the window are Spånåmalm, Kimito (135), Käldinge, Nagu (378), Keistiö, Iniö (103) and Bussö, Korpo (349).
55. The altitudes (m) and the shore zone ages (n = 147) of the P-group cairns. The error bar indicates whether the altitude was determined using the basic map, an altimeter or a levelling instrument.
56. The altitudes (m) and the shore zone ages (n = 218) of the R-group cairns. The error bar indicates whether the altitude was determined using the basic map, an altimeter or a levelling instrument.
57. The altitudes (m) and the shore zone datings of the R-group cairns with a shore zone dating of 500 BC or younger (n = 58). The error bar indicates whether the altitude was determined using the basic map, an altimeter or a levelling instrument.
58. The cairn at Djupklevsudden, Korpo, is situated in the village of Kälö in the Southwestern Archipelago National Park. The pasture habitat is kept up by cattle grazing (see Lindgren 2000). Photographed by the author.
59. The graves at Österudden, Pargas, and Falkön, Dragsfjärd (encircled) were visible from the sea when sailing north from the archipelago towards the Paimionlahti and the coast – at least if the boat was close enough, and one knew where to look. The map image corresponds the landscape in the year 500 BC. © National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98.
60. The effect of shore displacement on the view from the grave at Båtkullaberget, Kimito (139). The upper image presents the view in about 500 BC, the lower the present view (cf. Zilliacus 1994: 14–15). The blackened area describes the land area outside the visual contact, the light grey sections denote the sea area outside the visual contact, the whitened area denotes the visible sea area, and the dark grey signifies the visible land area. © National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98.
61. The archipelago of Åboland in about 500 BC, and the cairns in Group P (n = 147). © National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98
62. The archipelago of Åboland in about 1000 AD, and the cairns in Group R (n = 218). © National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98
63. The relative proportion of land in a window with a side length of 2025 m in about 500 BC for the grave sites in Group P, and in about 1000 AD for the grave sites in Group R. n = 364.
64. The visibility to the sea (white) and to the land (dark grey) within a radius of 5000 metres round the grave site at Långfuruholm, Dragsfjärd (060) in about 1000 AD. At that time the height of the grave site was 4.5 m above sea level. © National Board of Survey, lic.no. MAR/103/98.
65. Typical grave islands against the horizon – milieu dominants – north of Nötö, Nagu, seen from WSW, from the stretch of open sea called Berghamns fjärden. The peaks on the left were the highest points of the grave island of Boskär, the peak to the right from the middle belonged to the grave island of Ådön. The reconstruction describes the silhouette in about 1000 AD, and was made with the help of a DEM. © The National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98.
66. The regions to be analyzed for their fields of vision. 1. Björkö – Kittuis – Hyppeis; 2. Brunskär – Nötö – Lökholm; 3. Hertsböle – Hammarsboda – Högsåra; 4. Lillandet. © The National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98.
67. The viewing angles from the grave site at Rövik (042), Dragsfjärd in about 500 BC. The fan-shaped figure looking NE from the grave site indicates the strongest depth effect. The sharpest oblique viewing angle downward from the grave site towards the strait which linked the sheltered waters of the inner archipelago with a long inlet (nowadays a lake called Dragsfjärden), was 10 degrees. The light grey colour demonstrates the invisible or horizontally visible areas, the darker grey shades the downwards visible areas; the white colour indicates the land areas which are higher up than the grave site. © The National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98.
68. Region 1, Björkö – Kittuis – Hyppeis. The cumulative map of the visible areas from the grave sites in Group P (n = 3, the greatest number of overlapping visible areas cmax = 3). © The National Board of Survey, lic. No. MAR/103/98.
69. Region 1, Björkö – Kittuis – Hyppeis. The cumulative area of the visible areas from the graves in Group R (n = 21, cmax = 14). © The National Board of Survey, lic. no. MAR/103/98.
70. Region 2, Brunskär – Nötö – Lökholm. The cumulative map of viewsheds from the graves in Group R (n = 16, cmax = 10). © The National Board of Survey, lic. no. MAR/103/98.
71. Region 3, Hertsböle – Hammarsboda – Högsåra. The cumulative map of the viewsheds from the graves in Group P (n = 24, cmax = 10). © The National Board of Survey, lic. no. MAR/103/98.
72. Region 3, Hertsböle – Hammarsboda – Högsåra. The cumulative map of the viewsheds from the graves in Group R (n = 23, cmax = 12). © The National Board of Survey, lic.no. MAR/103/98.
73. Region 4, Lillandet. The cumulative map of the viewsheds from the grave sites in Group P (n = 17, cmax = 16). © The National Board of Survey, lic. no. MAR/103/98.
74. Region 4, Lillandet. The cumulative map of the viewsheds from the grave sites in Group R (n = 15, cmax = 13). © The National Board of Survey, lic. no. MAR/103/98.
75. The Iron-Age graves and cemeteries of classical types in Finland Proper (SW Finland) (n = 623).
76. The cairns in Finland Proper (SW Finland) (n = 1627).
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