2.6. Problem solving in teaching technology

This chapter explores the importance and nature of problem solving in technology. Through comparisons with problem solving in science some differing characteristics are derived. The comparisons are also intended to give food for thought to those teachers who are teaching technology through the multidisciplinary approach. In the multidisciplinary approach, it is essential that the essence of technology, and the characteristics of its problem solving processes are not missed within cross-domain activities. They should be clearly in the focus regardless of the procedures or approaches taken. This means, for example, that balance/counterbalance is not explored just because of an interest in the phenomenon itself, but rather by solving technological problems where the effects of balance/counterbalance need to be used in real solutions for identified purposes.

The problem solving method can be seen to be central in technological processes (McCormick & Davidson 1995, Layton 1993), even to the extent that it is regarded as a main part of the ‘technological method’ (Savage & Sterry 1990). Although the problem solving processes in technology were already discussed to some extent in chapter 2.1., the nature of the problem of innovation and creativity in problem solving, as well as motivation with volition are explored further below.

There is a broad agreement among psychologists that the term “problem“ refers to a situation in which an individual is called upon to perform a task not previously encountered. Moreover, when dealing with a true problem, externally provided instructions do not specify completely the mode of solution. The particular task, in other words, is something new to the individual, even though the processes or knowledge already available can be called up for solution. (Resnick & Glaser 1976)

Problem solving with openness is closely related to creativity and divergent thinking and production. According to Feldman (1993, p. 293) divergent thinking is “the ability to generate unusual but appropriate responses to problems or questions.“ Interestingly, creativity and intelligence do not seem to have a strong correlation between them (Cage & Berliner 1992). In most of the IQ tests the problems are rather defined and usually have only one right answer. In order to be successful in these tests, one needs to have convergent thinking skills; “a type of thinking which produces responses based on knowledge and logic“ (Feldman 1993, p. 293). In order to do technology, one also needs to have sheer knowledge about “rules“ and logical thinking. However, and importantly, also divergent thinking with innovative abilities is needed. In technology, there can be various appropriate and useful solutions that can be reached through creative and divergent problem solving processes, not through a “habitual way of doing things“ (Cage & Berliner 1992, p. 152).

Problem solving involves ‘a gap’ between what the child already knows and what he is required to find out. However, a problem in itself does not necessarily mean that the child is willing to solve it. What is required is motivation to act, the need to do something. This motivation could also be described as a cognitive drive including a desire to know and, importantly, also a desire to solve problems. (Ausubel & Robinson 1973). Since doing technology has been and still is driven by human needs and wants, children should also be given an impression of that drive in technology lessons. Here the question is essentially about the human volition or will. It is the cognitive drive that needs to be triggered in order to start the process of technology.

The activities in which scientists and technologists engage are claimed to be simply particular illustrations of general problem solving processes and actually have much in common. This is presented in the following table:

Science typically focuses on analysis. This means that the problem at hand is broken down into its parts in the process with the objective of discovering the laws of nature and explaining natural phenomena (Driver et al. 1995). Due to its focus on analysis doing science requires and might help to develop convergent thinking skills. Quite on the contrary, the essence in the technological process is a synthesis with the aim to bring together separate elements into a whole. Thus, doing technology requires and might help to develop divergent thinking skills. (Dugger & Yung 1995, Harrison 1994, Sparkes 1993, Feldman 1993)

Although the above model for technology/design problem solving is not the only one available (for example Savage & Sterry 1990), it can be applied in practical technology education, as it gives a well defined and even natural structure for problem solving when doing technology. However, the reality in the schools does not necessarily follow Layton’s problem solving model. If the learner is a beginner and has no experience about problem solving processes in technology, his/her process can go through quite a different route. Actually, in that case, the process can even be a regressive and frustrating endeavor. The child might have acquired so little experience and knowledge that formulating various ideas can actually be impossible, not to speak of selecting the most appropriate one as the final outcome. These kind of inadequate problem solving skills easily lead to situations where the learning process is slowed down or even hindered. Consequently, the teachers’ role in terms of intervention is again essential to guide the process into the right direction. On the other hand, children might have a lot of previous experiences and knowledge, and, subsequently more potential to proceed according to the problem solving model in technology. However, the child’s thinking is restricted or regulated by the expectations and demands of schools, teachers, and sometimes even parents. In this case the most appropriate or useful idea is not necessarily chosen, as the outcome has to be in accordance with these expectations (Adams 1991).

While solving the problem children bring background information and strategies to the process. If the children are working in a group, the individuals also bring their personal background information and strategies to the situation to form a common ‘pool’ of contribution on behalf of the collaborative problem solving. The possession of relevant background knowledge and skills facilitates problem solving. As a matter of fact, without such knowledge no problem solving is possible, aside from purely logical or ‘content-free’ problems. (Novak 1986) In general terms, a problem solving strategy is a set of rules for selecting, combining, modifying or otherwise manipulating background propositions in order to fill a gap inherent in a problem. The function and aim of the strategy is to reduce the randomness of trial and error in problem solving processes, and also in the technology process (cf. Dugger & Yung 1995), thus reducing the time required for and increasing the probability of a solution (McCormick et al. 1994).

Importantly, before engaging in problem solving, children should be made sensitive to notice problems which need to be solved (see Adams 1991). When doing technology children should be given opportunities to solve problems through discovery and innovation. As a matter of fact, the discovery approach to learning is naturally implied in problem solving. In the context of technology, this could mean real creative and divergent production, not marginal and would-be problem solving where, in the worst case, the final solutions are actually prescribed beforehand in terms of right answers. (Järvinen & Twyford 2000, McCormick & Davidson 1995)

“When the problem is not the question and the solution is not the answer“ kind of thinking (Lampert 1990) has been under consideration even among the researchers in mathematics teaching. In this regard, Lampert (1990, p. 32) challenges the traditional notion that “Doing mathematics means following the rules laid by the teacher.....and the mathematical truth is determined when the answer is ratified by the teacher“. Actually, it is not very rare even today that technology education follows these traditional notions of mathematical teaching. However, as shown earlier in this thesis, the above mentioned traditional notion does not seem to obtain support from the nature of technology itself.

It has to be noted that even though creative problem solving is essential in technology, convergent thinking is also needed during the course of technological processes. Moreover, knowledge and skills taught by the traditional teacher-centered approaches could become useful and utilizable when the learner attempts to apply them in novel, open-ended problem solving situations.