References

Adler H, Frisk M, Lindberg L (1995) Severe delinquency in young people: background factors and characterizing features. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 49: 263-274.

Agid O, Shapira B, Zislin J, Ritsner M, Hanin B, Murad M, Troudart T, Bloch M, Heresco-Levy U, Lerer B (1999) Environment and vulnerability to major psychiatric illness: a case control study of early parental loss in major depression, bipolar disorder and Schizophrenia. Molecular Psychiatry 4: 163-172.

Amato PR (1994) Life-span adjustment of children to their parents’ divorce. The Future of Children 4: 143-164.

Amato PR & Keith B (1991a) Parental divorce and the well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 110: 26-46.

Amato PR & Keith B (1991b) Parental divorce and adult well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family 53: 43-58.

Aro H (1989) Stress, development and psychosomatic symptoms in adolescence. a comparison of the sexes. Psychiatria Fennica 20: 101-109.

Aro H & Palosaari U (1992) Parental divorce, adolescence, and transition to young adulthood: a Follow-up study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 62: 421-429.

Barker DJP, Cooper C, Rose G (1998) Epidemiology in medical practise. 5th edition. Churchill Livingstone, New York.

Black D (1996) Childhood bereavement. British Medical Journal 312: 1496.

Block JH, Block J, Gjerde PF (1986) The personality of children prior to divorce: A prospective study. Child Development 57: 827-840.

Blum HM, Boyle MH, Offord DR (1988) Single-parent families: Child psychiatric disorder and school performance. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 27: 214-219.

Breier A, Kelsoe JR, Kirwin PD, Beller SA, Wolkowitz OM, Pickar D (1988) Early parental loss and development of adult psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry 45: 987-993.

Brennan PA, Grekin ER, Mednick SA (1999) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry 56: 215-219.

Brink SG & Vanderpool NA (1982) Utilization of child health services by children in single-parent and two-parent families. Children’s Health Care 11: 22-24.

Brown GW & Harris T (1978) Social Origins of Depression: A Study of Psychiatric Disorders in Women. Free Press, New York.

Brown GW, Harris T, Copeland JR (1977) Depression and loss. British Journal of Psychiatry 130:1-18.

Bumpass LL (1990) What’s happening to the family? Interactions between demographic and institutional change. Demography 27:483-498.

Bumpass LL & Raley RK (1995) Redefining single-parent families: Cohabitation and changing family reality. Demography 32:97-109.

Cadoret RJ (1978) Psychopathology in adopted-away offspring of biologic parents with antisocial behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry 35:176-184.

Cederblad M, Dahlin L, Hagnell O (1988) Påverkar barnpsykiatriska riskfaktorer den vuxnes psykiska hälsa? Läkartidningen 85: 4317-4321

Chase-Lansdale PL, Cherlin AJ, Kiernan KE (1995) The long-term effects of parental divorce on the mental health of young adults: a developmental perspective. Child Development 66: 1614-1634.

Cherlin AJ, Furstenberg FF jr, Chase-Lansdale PL, Kiernan KE, Robins PK, Morrison DR, Teitler JO (1991) Longitudinal studies of effects of divorce on children in Great Britain and the United States. Science 252: 1386-1389.

Christ MA, Lahey BB, Frick PJ, Russo MF, McBurnett K, Loeber R, Stouthamer-Loeber M, Green S (1990) Serious conduct problems in the children of adolescent mothers: disentangling confounded correlations. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology 58(6):840-844.

Cloninger CR, Bohman M, Sigvardsson S (1981) Inheritance of alcohol abuse: Cross-fostering analysis of adopted men. Archives of General Psychiatry 38:861-868.

Cohen P & Brook J (1987) Family factors related to the persistence of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence. Psychiatry 50: 332-345.

Coplan JD, Andrews MW, Rosenblum LA, Owens MJ, Friedman S, Gorman JM, Nemeroff CB (1996) Persistent elevations of cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of corticotropin-releasing factor in adult nonhuman primates exposed to early-life stressors: implications for the pathophysiology of mood and anxiety disorders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93:1619-1923.

Crook T & Elliot J (1980) Parental death during childhood and adult depression: a critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin 87: 252-259.

De Goede M & Spruijt E (1996) Effect of parental divorce and youth unemployment on adolescent health. Patient Education and Counseling 29: 269-276.

Dennehy CM (1966) Childhood bereavement and psychiatric illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 112: 1049-1069.

Draijer N & Langeland W (1999) Childhood trauma and perceived parental dysfunction in the etiology of dissociative symptoms in psychiatric inpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry 156: 379-385.

Dunn J, Deater-Deckard K, Pickering K, O’Connor T (1998) Children’s adjustment and prosocial behaviour in step-, single-parent, and non-stepfamily settings: Findings from a community study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 39: 1083-1095.

Emery RE (1982) Interparental conflict and the children of discord and divorce. Psychological Bulletin 92: 310-330.

Estaugh V & Power C (1991) Family disruption in early life and drinking in young adulthood. Alcohol and Alcoholism 26: 639-644.

Farrington DP (1995) The development of offending and antisocial behaviour from childhood : Key dingings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquency Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 360: 929-964.

Feehan M, McGee R, Williams SM, Nada-Raja S (1995) Models of adolescent psychopathology: Childhood risk and the transition to adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34: 670-679.

Fleming DM & Charlton JRH (1998) Morbidity and healthcare utilisation of children in households with one adult: comparative observational study. British Medical Journal 316: 1572-1576.

Freud S (1957) The Standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. Vol XIV, 237-260. The Hogard Press, London.

Fu H & Goldman N (2000) The association between health-related behaviours and the risk of divorce in the USA. Journal of Biosocial Science 32: 63-88.

Furukawa T, Harai H, Hirai T, Fujihara S, Kitamura T, Takahashi K (1998) Childhood parental loss and alcohol dependence in Japanese men: a case-control study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 97: 403-407.

Gary NC (1990) SAS institute. SAS procedures guide, version 6.12 SAS Institute.

Goldstein JR (1999) The levelling of divorce in the United States. Demography 36: 409-414.

Gould MS, Fisher P, Parides M, Flory M, Shaffer D (1996) Psychosocial risk factors of child and adolescent completed suicide. Archives of General Psychiatry 53: 1155-1162.

Gould MS, Shaffer D, Fisher P, Garfinkel R (1998) Separtion/divorce and child and adolescent comleted suicide. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37: 155-162.

Hernandez DJ (1988) Demographic trends and living arrangements of children. In Impact of divorce, single-parenting and step-parenting on children. Hetherington EM, Arasteh JD, eds. Hillsdale, New Jersey.

Hetherington EM, Bridges M, Insabella GM (1998) What matters? What does not? Five perspectives on the association between marital transitions and children’s adjustment. American Psychologist 53: 167-184.

Hetherington EM, Cox M, Cox R (1985) Long-term effects of divorce and remarriage on the adjustment of children. Journal of Social Issues 35: 36-49.

Hetherington EM, Stanley-Hagan M, Anderson ER (1989) Marital transitions. A child’s perspective. American Psychologist 44: 303-312.

Hope S, Power C, Rodgers B (1998) The relationship between parental separation in childhood and problem drinking in adulthood. Addiction 93: 505-514.

Hosmer DW & Lemeshow S (1989) Applied logistic regression. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Hughes JR, Zagar R, Sylvies RB, Arbit J, Busch KG (1991) Medical, Family and scholastic conditions in urban delinquents. Journal of Clinical Psychology 47: 448-464.

Isohanni M, Moilanen I, Rantakallio P (1991) Determinants of teenage smoking, with special reference to non-standard family background. British Journal of Addiction 86: 391-398.

Isohanni M, Mäkikyrö T, Moring J, Räsänen P, Hakko H, Partanen U, Koiranen M, Jones P (1997) A comparison of clinical and research DSM-III-R diagnoses of schizophrenia in a Finnish national birth cohort. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 32: 303-308.

Isohanni M, Oja H, Moilanen I, Rantakallio P, Koiranen M (1993) The relation between teenage smoking and drinking, with special reference to non-standard family background.Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine 21: 24-30.

Isohanni M, Oja H, Moilanen I, Koiranen M (1994) Teenage alcohol drinking and non-standard family background. Social Science and Medicine 38: 1565-1574.

Jallinoja R (1994) Muuttuva perhe: arvot ja käytäntö. In: Näkökulmia perheeseen. Eds. Antikainen J, Haataja M-L, Korhonen M. STAKES. Raportteja 136. Gummerus Oy, Jyväskylä.

Jallinoja R (2000) Perheen aika (in Finnish) Otava, Helsinki.

Johnson BA, Cloninger CR, Roache JD Brodnick PS, Ruiz P (2000) Age of onset as a discrimination between alcoholic subtypes in a treatment-seeking outpatient population. American Journal of Addiction 9: 17-27.

Jones P, Rantakallio P, Hartikainen A, Isohanni M, Sipilä P (1998) Schizophrenia as a long-term outcome of pregnancy, delivery and perinatal complications: A 28 year follow-up of the 1966 North Finland general population birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 155: 355-364.

Judge K & Benzeval M (1993) Health inequalities: new concerns about the children of single mothers. British Medical Journal 306: 677-680.

Järvelin M, Mäki-Torkko E, Sorri MJ, Rantakallio PT (1997) Effect of hearing impairment on educational out-comes and employment up to the age 25 years in northern Finland. British Journal of Audiology 31, 165-175.

Kalter N, Kloner A, Schreier S, Okla K (1989) Predictors of children’s postdivorce adjustment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 59: 606-618.

Kartovaara L (2001) Finnish families. http://virtual.finland.fi/finfo/english/families.html

Kendler KS, Neale MC, Prescott RC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Corey LA, Eaves LJ (1996) Childhood parental loss and alcoholism in women: a causal analysis using a twin-family design. Psychological Medicine 26: 79-95

Kerfoot M, Dyer E, Harrington V, Woodham A, Harrington R (1996) Correlates and short-term course of self-poisoning in adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry 168: 38-42.

Keskimäki I & Aro S (1991)The accuracy of data on diagnoses, procedures and accidents in the Finnish Hospital Discharge Register. International Journal of Health Services 2: 15-21.

Kessler RC, Davis CG, Kendler KS (1997) Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US national comorbidity survey. Psychological Medicine 27: 1101-1119.

Kessler RC, Walters EE, Forthofer MS (1999) The social consequences of psychiatric disorders, III: Probability of Marital Stability. American Journal of Psychiatry 155: 1092-1096.

Kienhorst CWM, de Wilde EJ, Van Den Bout J, Diekstra RFW, Wolters WHG (1990) Characteristics of suicide attepters in a population-based sample of dutch adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry 156: 243-248.

Kiernan K (1992) The impact of family disruption in childhood on transitions made in young adult life. Population Studies 46: 213-234.

Kleinbaum DG (1994) Logistic regression: a self-learning text. Springer-Verlag New York Inc, New York.

Kolvin I, Miller FJW, Fleeting M, Kolvin PA (1988) Social and parenting factors affecting criminal-offence rates. Findings from the Newcastle Thousand Family Study (1947-1980) British Journal of Psychiatry 153: 80-90.

Kranzler EM, Shaffer D, Wasserman G, Davis M (1990) Early childhood bereavement. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 29: 513-520.

Kuh D & Maclean M (1990) Women’s childhood experience of parental separation and their subsequent health and socioeconomic status in adulthood. Journal of Biosocial Science 22: 121-135.

Kurki P, Koivuniemi-Iliev L, Tuulos T (2000) Psyykkisten häiriöiden ehkäisy neuvolassa – Varhaisen vuorovaikutuksen tukeminen lastenneuvolatyössä –projekti 1997-2000. Oulun lääninhallituksen julkaisuja, 64, ISSN 1236-1399, Oulu.

Lahey BB, Hartdagen SE, Frick PJ, McBurnett K, Connor R, Hynd GW (1988) Conduct disorder: Parsing the confounded relation to parental divorce and antisocial personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97: 334-337.

Lambert L & Streather J (1980) Children in changing families. National Children’s Bureau Series. The MacMillian Press LTD, London.

Lappalainen J, Long JC, Eggert M, Ozaki N, Robin RW, Brown GL, Naukkarinen H, Virkkunen M, Linnoila M, Goldman D (1998) Linkage of antisocial alcoholism to the serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene in 2 populations. Archives of General Psychiatry 55: 989-994.

Last JM (ed.) (1995) A Dictionary of epidemiology (3rd edition) Oxford University Press Inc., New York.

Laucht M, Esser G, Baving L, Gerhold M, Hoesch I, Ihle W, Steigleider P, Stock B, Stoehr RM, Weindrich D, Schmidt MH (2000) Behavioral sequelae of perinatal insults and early family adversity at 8 years of age. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39: 1229-1237.

Leonard KE & Rothbard JC (1999) Alcohol and the marriage effect. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, supplement, 13: 139-146.

Lidz T (1983) The Person: His and Her development throughout the life cycle. Reversed ed. Basic Books, New York.

Lundberg O (1993) The impact of childhood conditions on illness and mortality in adulthood. Social Science and Medicine 36: 1047-1052.

Luoma I, Puura K Tamminen T Kaukonen P, Piha J Räsänen E, Kumpulainen K, Moilanen I, Koivisto AM, Almqvist F (1999) Emotional and behavioural symptoms in 8-9-year old children in relation to family structure. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 8 Supplement. 4: 29-40.

Lönnqvist J, Aro H, Marttunen M (eds) (1993) Itsemurhat Suomessa 1987-projekti: Toteutus, aineisto ja tutkimustuloksia. Stakes Tutkimuksia 25, Gummerus, Jyväskylä.

Macintyre S (1992) The effect of family position and status on health. Social Science and Medicine 35: 453-464.

Mansfield CJ, Wilson JL, Kobrinski EJ, Mitchell J (1999) Premature mortality in the United States: The roles of geographic area, socioecomonic status, household type, and availability of medical care. American Journal of Public Health 89: 893-898.

Marttunen M, Aro H, Henriksson M, Lönnqvist J (1991). Mental disorders in adolescent suicide. DSM-III-R axes I and II among 13 to 19 year old. Archives of General Psychiatry 48: 834-849.

Marttunen M, Aro H, Lönnqvist J (1993) Precipitant stressors in adolescent suicide. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32: 1178-1183.

Mauldon J (1990) The effect of marital disruption on children’s health. Demography 27: 431-446.

McDaniel S, Campbell T, Seaburn D (1990) Family-Oriented primary care. A Manual for medical providers. Springer-Verlag, New York.

McDermott (1970) Divorce and its psychiatric sequelae in children. Archives of General Psychiatry 23: 421-427.

McGue M & Lykken DT (1992) Genetic influence on risk of divorce. Psychological Science 3: 368-372.

McLanahan S & Bumpass L (1988) Intergenerational consequences of family disruption. American Journal of Sociology 94: 130-152.

Mednick SA & Kandel ES (1988) Congenital determinants of violence. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 16: 101-109.

Moilanen I & Rantakallio P (1988) The single parent family and the child’s mental health.Social Science and Medicine 27: 181-186.

Montgomery LE, Kiely JL, Pappas G (1996) The effect of poverty, race, and family structure on US children’s health: data from the NHIS, 1978 through 1980 and 1989 through 1991. American Journal of Public Health 86: 1401-1405.

Moyes CD (1980) Epidemiology of serious head injuries in childhood. Child: Care, Health and Development 6: 1-9.

Mäkikyrö T (1998) Schizophrenia. Diagnosis, early social factors and comorbidity. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis Medica D 484, Oulu.

Mäkikyrö T, Isohanni M, Moring J, Oja H, Hakko H, Jones P & Rantakallio P (1997) Is a child’s risk of early onset schizophrenia increased in the highest social class? Schizophrenia Research 23: 245-252.

Mäkikyrö T, Karvonen JT, Hakko H, Nieminen P, Joukamaa M, Isohanni M, Jones P & Järvelin M (1998b) Comorbidity of hospital-treated psychiatric and physical disorders with special reference to schizophrenia: A 28 year follow-up of the 1966 Northern Finland general population birth cohort. Journal of Public Health 112: 221-228.

Mäkikyrö T, Sauvola A, Moring J, Veijola J, Nieminen P, Järvelin M, Isohanni M (1998a) Hospital-treated psychiatric disorders in adults with a single-parent and two-parent family background: A 28 year follow-up of the 1966 Northern Finland Birth Cohort. Family Process 37: 335-344.

Nieminen J (1990) Lapsen tapaamisoikeuden toteuttamisen ongelma. Tampereen Yliopisto, Sosiaalipolitiikan laitos: Tutkimuksia Sarja B, nro 4. Tampere.

Nieminen P (1996) Therapeutic community research and statistical data analysis. Acta Universitas Ouluensis Medica D 360, Oulu.

Norusis JE (1994) SPSS for Windows. Advanced statistics. Release 6. SPSS Inc Corp., Chigaco.

Näyhä S (1980) Short and medium.term variations in mortality in Finland. A study on cyclic variations, annual and weekly periods and certain irregular changes in mortality in Finland during the period 1868-1972. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine 8, Supplement 21.

O’Connor T, Thorpe K, Dunn J, Golding J (1999) Parental divorce and adjustment in adulthood: findings from a community sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 40: 777-789.

Offord DR, Abrams N, Allen N, Poushinsky M (1979) Broken homes, parental psychiatric illness, and female delinquency. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 49: 252-264.

Olds D, Henderson CR Jr, Cole R, Eckenrode J, Kitzman H, Luckey D, Pettitt L, Sidora K, Morris P, Powers J (1998) Long-term effects of nurse home visitation on children’s criminal and antisocial behavior: 15-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of American Medical Association 280: 1238-1244.

Palosaari U & Aro H (1995) Parental divorce, self-esteem and depression: an intimate relationship as a protective factor in young adulthood. Journal of Affective Disorders 35: 91-96.

Piha J (2000) Perhe ja ympäristö. (in Finnish) In. Lasten- ja nuorisopsykiatria, 65-76. Eds. Räsänen E, Moilanen I, Tamminen T, Almqvist F. Gummerus Oy, Jyväskylä.

Poikolainen K (1983) Accuracy of hospital discharge data: five alcohol-related diseases. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 12: 315-322.

Portes PR, Howell M, Brown JH, Eichenberger S, Mas CA (1992) Family functions and children’s postdivorce adjustment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 62: 613-617.

Raine A & Mednick SA (1989) Biosocial longitudinal research into antisocial behavior. Revue d’Epidemiologie et de Sante Publique 37: 515-524.

Raine A, Brennan P, Mednick SA (1994) Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry 51: 984-988.

Raine A, Brennan P, Mednick B, Mednick SA (1996) High rates of violence, crime, academic problems, and behavioral problems in males with both early neuromotor deficits and unstable family environments. Archives of General Psychiatry 53: 544-549.

Raine A, Brennan P, Mednick B (1997) Interaction between birth complications and early maternal rejection in predisposing individuals to adult violence: specificity to serious, early-onset violence. American Journal of Psychiatry 154:1265-1271.

Rantakallio P (1969) Groups at risk in low birth weight infants and perinatal mortality. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 193: 1-71.

Rantakallio P (1979) Social background of mothers who smoke during pregnancy and influence of these factors on the offspring. Social Science and Medicine 13A: 423-429.

Rantakallio P (1988) The longitudinal study of the Northern Finland birth cohort of 1966. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2: 59-88.

Rantakallio P, Koiranen M, Möttönen J (1992c) Association of perinatal events, epilepsy, and central nervous system trauma with juvenile delinqency. Archives of Disease in Childhood 67: 1459-1461.

Rantakallio P, Läärä E, Isohanni M, Moilanen I (1992b) Maternal smoking during Pregnancy and delinquency of the offspring: An association without causation? International Journal of Epidemiology 1106-1113.

Rantakallio P, Moilanen I, Isohanni M (1992a) Perhetaustan yhteys nuorten miesten rikollisuuteen. Family background and juvenile crime. (Summary in English). Journal of Social Medicine 29: 13-20.

Rantakallio P & Oja H (1990) Perinatal risk for infants of unmarried mothers over period of 20 years. Early Human Development 22: 157-169.

Rantakallio P, vonWendt L, Koivu M (1987) Prognosis of perinatal brain damage: a prospective study of a one year birth cohort of 12 000 children. Early Human Development 15: 75-84.

Roberts I (1994) Sole parenthood and the risk of child pedestrian injury. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 30: 530-532.

Rodgers B (1990) Adult affective disorders and early environment. British Journal of Psychiatry 157: 539-550.

Rodgers B (1994) Pathways between parental divorce and adult depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 35: 1289-1308.

Rodgers B, Power C, Hope S (1997) Parental divorce and adult psychological distress: Evidence from a National birth cohort: A Research Note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 38: 867-872.

Romelsjö A, Kaplan KA, Cohen RC, Allenbeck P, Andreasson S (1992) Protective factors and social risk factors for hospitalization and mortality among young men. American Journal of Epidemiology 35: 649-58.

Roy A (1981) Specificity of risk factors for depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 138: 959-961.

Roy A (1985) Early parental separation and adult depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 42: 987-991.

Rubenstein JL, Halton A, Kasten L, Rubin C, Stechler G (1998) Suicidal behavior in adolescents: stress and protection in different family contexts. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 68: 274-284.

Rutter M (1981) Maternal deprivation reassessed. 2nd edition. Penguin Books Ltd, London.

Rutter M (1987) Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 57: 316-331.

Räsänen P, Hakko H, Isohanni M, Hodgins S, Järvelin M, Tiihonen J (1999) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the Norhern Finland 1966 birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 156: 857-862.

Räsänen P, Tiihonen J, Isohanni M, Moring J, Koiranen M (1998) Juvenile mortality, mental disturbances and criminality: a prospective study of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 97: 5-9.

Sadowski H, Ugarte B, Kolvin I, Kaplan C, Barnes J (1999) Early life family disadvantages and major depression in adulthood. British Journal of Psychiatry 174: 112-120.

Schoettle UC & Cantwell DP (1980) Children of divorce. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 19: 453-475.

Schwartz JE, Friedman HS, Tucker JS, Tomlinson-Keasey C, Wingard DL, Criqui MH (1995) Sociodemographic and psychosocial factors in childhood as predictors of adult mortality. American Journal of Public Health 85: 1237-1245.

Sieber MF & Angst J (1990) Alcohol, tobacco and cannabis:12-year longitudinal associations with antecedent social context and personality. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 25: 281-292.

Siegel S & Castellan NJ (1988) Nonparameteric statistics for the behavioral sciences. McGraw-Hill International, Singapore.

Silverstein LB & Auerbach CF (1999) Deconstructing the essential father. American Psychologist 54: 397-407.

Sokol-Katz J, Dunham R, Zimmerman R (1997) Family structure versus parental attachment in controlling adolescent deviant behavior: a social control model. Adolescence 32: 199-218.

Sorri M & Järvelin MR (1998) Well-being and health. Background to the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort research. International Journal of Circumpolar Health 57: 82-83

Sosiaaliryhmitys (1954) Helsingin kaupungin tilastotoimisto, Helsinki.

Statistics Finland (1977) Statistical Year Book of Finland 1976. Statistics Finland, Helsinki.

Statistics Finland (1988) Statistical Year Book of Finland 1987. Statistics Finland, Helsinki.

Statistics Finland (1999a) Statistical Year Book of Finland 1998. Statistics Finland, Helsinki.

Statistics Finland (1999b) Yearbook of Justice Statistics 1999, Justice 1999:18. Statistics Finland, Helsinki.

Statistics Finland (2000) Families 1999, Population 2000:12. Statistics Finland, Helsinki.

Stattin H, Magnusson D, Reichel H (1989) Criminal activity at different ages: a study based on a Swedish longitudinal population. British Journal of Criminology 29:368-385.

Stattin H & Romelsjö A (1995) Adult mortality in the light of criminality, substance abuse, and behavioural and family-risk factors in adolescence. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 5: 279-311.

Tennant C (1988) Parental loss in childhood: It"s effect in adult life. Archives of General Psychiatry 45: 1045-1050.

Tennant C & Bernardi E (1988) Childhood loss in alcoholics and narcotic addicts. British Journal of Addiction 83:695-703.

Thompson (1994) The role of the father after divorce. The Future of Children 4: 210-235.

Tiihonen J, Isohanni M, Räsänen P, Koiranen M, Moring J (1997) Spesific major mental disorders and criminality: a 26-year prospective study of the 1966 Northern Finland birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 154: 840-845.

Tolkki-Nikkonen (1992) Perhe: rakenteista prosesseihin (in Finnish). in Arki, perhe, politiikka. Näkökulmia perheeseen, 11-16. Eds. Alanen L & Kähkönen P Reports from the family Research Unit 3, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä.

Trad PV (1995) Mental health of Adolescent Mothers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34:2 130-141.

Tucker JS, Friedman HS, Schwartz JE, Criqui MH, Tomlinson-Keasey C, Wingard DL, Martin LR (1997) Parental divorce: effects on individual behavior and longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73: 381-391.

Tulisalo U (1999) Parental Divorce and depression in young adulthood. Acta Universitatis Tamperensis 694, Tampere.

Vaillant GE (1980) Natural history of male psychological health: VIII. Antecendents of alcoholism and “orality“. American Journal of Psychiatry 137: 181-186.

van Der Kolk BA, Perry JC, Herman JL (1991) Childhood origins of self-destructive behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry 148: 1665-1671.

Wadsworth J, Burnell I, Taylor B, Butler N (1983) Family type and accidents in preschool children. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 37: 100-104.

Wadsworth M (1979) Roots of delinquency: Infancy, adolescence and crime. Martin Robertson, Oxford.

Wadsworth M (1987) Follow-up of the first national birth cohort: Findings from the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 1: 95-117.

Wadsworth M, Maclean M, Kuh D, Rodgers B (1990). Children of divorced and separated parents: summary and review of findings from a long-term follow-up study in the UK. Family Practice 7: 104-109.

Wahlberg K-E, Wynne LC, Oja H, KeskitaloP, Pykäläinen L, Lahti I, Moring J, Naarala M, Sorri A, Seitamaa M, Läksy K, Kolassa J, Tienari P (1997) Gene-environment interaction in vulnerability to schizophrenia: findings from the Finnish Adotive Family Study of Schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 154: 355-362.

Wakschlag LS, Lahey BB, Loeber R, Green SM, Gordon RA, Leventhal BL (1997) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of conduct disorder in boys. Archive of General Psychiatry 54: 670-676.

Wallerstein JS & Blakeslee S (1989) Second changes: Men, woman and children a decade after divorce; who wins, who loses - and why. Ticknor & Fields, New York.

Weissman MM, Warner V, Wickramaratne P, Moreau D, Olofson M (1997) Offspring of depressed parents. 10 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry 54: 932-940.

Wells EL & Rankin JH (1991) Families and delinquency: a meta-analysis of the impact of broken homes. Social Problems 38: 71-93.

Wingert WA, Larson W, Friedman DB (1968) The influence of family organization on the utilization of pediatric emergency services. Pediatrics 42: 743-751.

Winnicott DW (1965) The maturational processes and the facilitating environment. Studies in the theory of emotional development. International University Press, New York.

Winter H, Holland AJ, Collins S (1997) Factors predisposing to suspected offending by adults with a self reported learning disabilities. Psychological Medicine 27: 595-607.

Wolfinger NH (1998) The effects of parental divorce on adult tobacco and alcohol consumption. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 39: 254-269.

Öhberg A (1998) Suicide methods in Finland. Publications of the National Public Health Institute KTL A5/1998. Hakapaino Oy, Helsinki.